Protein Manipulation in feed to Reduce
Environmental Impacts
From Broiler
INTRODUCTION
Development of the livestock
industry is currently very rapidly, in line with the human need for meat and
eggs. An industry has always demanded friendly and environmentally sound.
Livestock industry is an industry that produces biologically primary products
such as eggs, meat that is easily damaged and faces that cause pollution.
According to statistics the number of broiler in Indonesia in 2010 (BPS, 2010)
is 1,249,952,000 hen, if each chicken produces faces 63g/head/day, faces production
of broiler is 78.746976 billion g/head/day. For laying hens 103 841 000 hen, if
the faces are removed 72.30 g/head/day, the faces production of laying hens in
Indonesia is 7,507,704,300 g/head/day. Therefore livestock and the environment
harmony will not negotiable, if it does not want to protests and threats from
the surrounding environment.
In general, the environmental impact
of poultry can be divided into three major categories namely minerals accumulation, the
release of ammonia which causes acid rain and chicken carcasses. High content
of nitrogen on the faces due to three factors that are also high protein feed,
metabolism of uric acid out with feces and urine mixed with the faces due to merging
of the sewer. Protein and uric acid which causes undigested microbial enzyme
urease to convert it to urea, then degraded to ammonia released in the air.
Environmental issues due to the emission of N, Ca
and Av. P originated largely as a result of excess dietary crude protein (CP)
and minerals from intensive livestock housing systems. The
results of previous works suggesting that dietary manipulation including
reducing dietary CP of diets in poultry could be a useful tool to reduce NH and
consequently, other gas emissions thus
reduce concentration levels of aerial contaminants in impact on and around poultry production systems.
Protein contained
in the feces
is the main source
of nitrogen. The amount and
composition of manure produced by chickens
varies and is
influenced by age, race, and type of feed. Estimated
to produce a broiler chicken manure
as much as 0.15 kg
per day containing
1.7%4 nitrogen,
phosphorus 0.16% and
0.58% potassium (Kumar
and Biswar, 1982;
Charles and Hariono,
1991).
DISCUSION
Developmen of Broiler in Indonesia
Broiler
farm businesses were starting to grow again 1997 after
the economic crisis in Indonesia.
It can be seen from
the increase in broiler population from 2004 to 2008 of 16.58%, from
about 779 million birds to 902 million head
(Ditjenak, 2009) as
shown in Table 1.
Chicken
farm is often used
as a source of major causes of polluting the environment involved. Therefore,
in order the chicken farm into a business friendly environment
and efficient, the management of
maintenance, housing, and handling of waste
should always be considered. According to the Deptan
(1991) and Deptan (1994) a farm
with a certain population
should be equipped with environmental
management and monitoring efforts. For the broiler farm,
the population of more than 15,000 birds
per cycle is located in one location, while
for laying hens, a population of
more than 10,000 breeding located in one location.
Manure Emision from broiler
Applegate
(2008) state that many of the air emissions from manure
come from the degradation of amino acids. For example, the release of NH3 from
urinary urea N is caused by the enzymatic conversion of urea by urease in the
manure and it can occur within a short time after excretion. Uric acid in
manure from poultry is broken down by the enzyme uricase and urease to NH3 (Figure
1). Indoles and phenols come primarily from the degradation of amino acids
tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan.
Fontenot
et al. (1983) reported that the
average production of fresh
poultry layer waste
was 0.06 kg /
day / hen, and
dry matter content of 26% while maintaining the broiler manure is removed
as much as 0.1 kg
/ day / hen
and content 25%
dry material. Average
composition of broiler chicken
manure based on wet weight are presented in
Table 2.
Environmental impacts of Poultry
odor Emission
The
impact of a poultry
farm on the surrounding environment
is primarily form the odors released during the
decomposition process chicken manure. The smell is coming from a high content of ammonia
gas and hydrogen
sulfide gas (H2S),
dimethyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, and
mercaptans. The cause of the emergence of the largest number of livestock odor
coming from the various components which include NH3, VOCs, and H2S (NRC, 2003).
Compounds that cause odor can be easily formed in
anaerobic conditions such as piles of dirt that was still wet. This
compound is easily smelled
even in very
small concentrations. For H2S,
the levels of 0.47 mg / l or in konsentarasi part
per million (ppm)
in air is the concentration
limit can still smell
the stench. For ammonia,
low levels of detectable
odor is 5 ppm.
However, a person's sensitivity to this odor is not absolute,
especially the smell caused by a gas mixture (Charles and
Hariono, 1991).
The smell of
chicken manure in addition to negatively impact the health of people living in the neighborhood farms, as well as negative impact on livestock and livestock
productivity to decline cause. Environmental management
of farms are less well able to cause economic losses to the farmers themselves because these
gases can lead to decreased
productivity chickens while increasing health
care costs are causing farmers thinning
profit (Pauzenga, 1991).
Reduce crude protein
Gates et al. (2000) studied the effects of reducing
crude protein levels below current commercial levels, with simultaneous enhancement
of amino acid levels. The results of the study indicate that after three meat chicken
flocks were raised on the same litter and diet:
1. The
pH and moisture content was lower for meat chickens on a reduced crude protein
and enhanced amino acid diet.
2. The
concentrations of equilibrium ammonia gas and litter total ammoniacal nitrogen
was lower (approximately 90 percent and 50 percent lower respectively) on a
reduced crude protein and enhanced amino acid diet.
3. The
bird production performance was not compromised on the low crude protein and
enhanced amino acid diet (achieving between 1.8 and 2 kg feed/ kg live weight
gain).
Elwinger and Svensson (1996) studied the effect of
varying dietary protein content on ammonia emission from meat chicken sheds. The
results of the study indicate that increasing the dietary protein content
increased the ammonia concentrations in the litter and air of a meat chicken
shed. However, reduced concentrations of ammonia in the litter do not necessarily
lead to the reduction of odour emission rates. Research into the relationship between
odour and ammonia concentration has produced varied results. This is due to the
complex nature of odour (ie a reduction in ammonia concentrations does not
typically correspond to a proportional decrease in odour emission rates).
Angel
et al. (2006) investigated further strategies of increasing number of diet
phases and supplemental amino acids beyond crystalline Met, Lys, and Thr. For
those studies, five flocks of broilers were reared to 42 days of age. Broilers
on the control treatment were fed a four phase feeding program with
supplemental Met and Lys, whereas the low CP treatment consisted of feeding a
six phase feeding program with supplemental Lys, Met, Thr, isoleucine (Iso),
valine (Val), Trp, and arginine (Arg). The lowered CP diets with additional
feeding phases reduced NH3 emissions by greater than 40%. While increases in dietary phases are
commercially feasible, dietary inclusion of supplemental amino acids other than
Lys, Met, and Thr is not economically feasible at this time.
Effect
of Dietary Crude Protein Fluctuation During Starter Period
Data
regaring the interactive effects of CP by mineral on performance of broiler and
retention of these element in the gut of broiler is limited. Therefore, the
purpose of this experiment was to study the effect of different dietary CP
content alone or in combination with different Ca and Av.P content ( constant
Ca to Av.P ratio) on growth and carcas charasteristic N, Ca and P retention and
blood parameters of broiler chiken during starter period (Kermanshahi, 2011).
The effect of CP
content on mineral and nitrogen retention and tibia bone parameter on day 21
according Kermanshahi (2011)
research. The result showed that dietary CP content had a signifikan effect
(P<0,005) on Ca and N retention. No significant effect of the diet decrease N retention (50,5 in hight CP
content vs 63,3% in the control diet) and consequently increased N excretion.
These findings are in agreement with those of other who revealed high protein
diets may lead to an increase in nitrogen excretion (Aletor, 2000) witch may
have a negatif environmental impact.
Effects
of Dietary Fiber and Reduced Crude Protein
Adjusting the
diet composition may decrease the amount of NH3 that is lost from laying-hen
facilities. Inclusion of feed ingredients with high concentrations of fiber has
been shown to lower NH3 emission from pigs, and reduced-CP diets have been
shown to decrease N excretion from broilers, and laying hens (Summers, 1993;
1998b; Bregendahl et al., 2002).
Roberts (2007) hypothesized that reducing the
dietary CP content and including high-fiber feed ingredients would lower NH3
emission from laying-hen manure. The objectives of this research were to feed
diets with a reduced-CP content and additional high-fiber ingredients to laying
hens and measure manure NH3 emission, egg production, and N balance. The
effects of the dietary treatments on NH3 emission are presented here, with
production and N balance data presented separately.
Including
high-fiber ingredients in pig diets has been shown to decrease NH3 emission
because dietary fiber increases the metabolism and growth of bacterial
populations in the large intestine (Kirchgessner et al., 1994). In addition to
the energy provided by the fiber, the bacteria also require N, part of which may
be acquired from N that would otherwise be excreted as uric acid, thereby
shifting theNexcretion from uric acid to bacterial protein. Indeed, when
Shriver et al. (2003) fed SH or beet pulp to pigs, N excretion was
repartitioned from the urine to the feces. Bacterial enzymes in manure readily
degrade uric acid to NH3, which is volatilized (Mackie et al., 1998). In
contrast, bacterial protein in the feces is more stable compared with uric acid
such that the N will remain in the manure for a longer period of time, thereby
lowering NH3 volatilization and improving the fertilizer value of the manure
(Canh et al., 1998c).
In the present study, NH3 emission from manure was
lowered (P < 0.01) by dietary inclusion of 10.0% corn DDGS, 7.3% WM,
or 4.8% SH when measured per kilogram of manure over 7 d compared with manure
of hens fed the control diet, with the diet containing corn DDGS resulting in a
50% decrease in NH3 emission (Table 2). Canh et al. (1998b) found that pigs fed
high-fiber diets excreted more DM manure than pigs fed a control diet.
Inclusion of high-fiber feed ingredients in laying-hen diets may also cause an
increase in DM manure excretion because of the possibility of lower DM
digestibility Although the DM digestibilities of the diets were not affected by
the inclusion of fiber in the present study (Roberts, 2007), NH3 emission was
calculated on a per hen basis to account for any potential differences in
manure excretion between control- and fiber-fed hens. Regardless of this
adjustment, NH3 emission was lower (P ≤ 0.05) from hens fed the fiber
diets compared with emission from hens fed the control diet.
The
N excretion in manure consists mainly of uric acid and bacterial protein with
some urea, NH3, and endogenous N. To determine whether the additional dietary
fiber caused a repartitioning of N excretion from uric acid to bacterial
protein, the uric acid content of the manure was measured. A decrease in uric
acid N as a percentage of total N excretion would suggest an increase in the
bacterial- protein N contents of the manure. However, there were no differences
(P > 0.10) in uric acid N as a percentage of total N excretion for
the manure from fiber-fed hens compared with the manure from hens fed the
control diet, suggesting that N was not repartitioned from uric acid to
bacterial protein (Roberts, 2007).
Results of this
study showed that inclusion of 10% corn DDGS, 7% WM, or 5% SH in laying-hen
diets lowered total manure NH3 emission and the NH3 emission rate by up to 50%.
This effect was mainly through a decrease in manure pH. When corn DDGS,WM,or SH
are included in a commercial laying-hen diet, it is typically because of their
contribution of nutrients to the diet or their relatively low cost in
least-cost feed formulations. However, this study showed that, in addition to
the essential amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients provided by the corn
DDGS, WM, and SH, these ingredients also function to lower NH3 emission.
Effects
of Dietary Crude Protein and Mineral Content
In the current andexperiment 15% decrease in CP
content of the diets significantly (P < 0.05) increased P, Ca and N
retention. N retention. Increasing CP content of the diet resulted in a
decrease in N retention) and consequently increasing N excretion. These findings
are in agreement with those research which revealed that high-protein diets may
lead to an increase in nitrogen excretion which has a negative environmental
impact (Aletor et al., 2000),. In this study there was a significant
effect (P < 0.05) for dietary treatments on tibia ash and those of
birds fed Ca and Av. P based dietary treatments Reducing Ca and Av. P content
of the diet significantly increased length of tibia which can be attributed to
the higher retention of Ca or P in the gut of birds receiving reduced Ca and
Av. P diet.
CONCLUSION
Based on the description above,
we can concluted that:
~ Broiler
farm businesses were starting to grow again 1997 after
the economic crisis in Indonesia.
~ Air
emissions from manure come from the degradation of amino acids
~
~ Addition
to the essential amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients provided by the
corn DDGS, WM, and SH, these ingredients also function to lower NH3 emission.
~ In
poultry use of diets with lower CP could provide a method for lowering N and
minerals excretion.
~ Decreasing
CP and Ca and Av. P resulted in a significant increase in N, Ca and P
retention.
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Minggu, 29 Juli 2012